-
Články
- Časopisy
- Kurzy
- Témy
- Kongresy
- Videa
- Podcasty
Recognition of Hyphae by Human Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Is Mediated by Dectin-2 and Results in Formation of Extracellular Traps
While plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are known to be important immune cells involved in protection from viruses and tumors, their role in protection against fungal infections is less clear. Our laboratory has been studying the interplay between pDCs and the fungal pathogen, Aspergillus fumigatus. Our previous work demonstrated that human pDCs bind to and inhibit the growth of A. fumigatus hyphae. Moreover, depletion of pDCs rendered mice very susceptible to experimental infection with A. fumigatus. Here, we show that Dectin-2, a receptor on pDCs, recognizes A. fumigatus hyphae and contributes to cytokine release and antifungal activity. In addition, using confocal and electron microscopy, we demonstrate that upon contact with hyphae, some human pDCs die and form antimicrobial structures called extracellular traps. Finally, using microarrays, we analyzed human pDC gene expression upon A. fumigatus infection and found distinct patterns including the activation of genes previously associated with viral infections and apoptosis. These results provide new insights into the mechanisms by which pDCs might help the immune system when confronted with a fungal invader.
Vyšlo v časopise: Recognition of Hyphae by Human Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Is Mediated by Dectin-2 and Results in Formation of Extracellular Traps. PLoS Pathog 11(2): e32767. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1004643
Kategorie: Research Article
prolekare.web.journal.doi_sk: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.ppat.1004643Souhrn
While plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) are known to be important immune cells involved in protection from viruses and tumors, their role in protection against fungal infections is less clear. Our laboratory has been studying the interplay between pDCs and the fungal pathogen, Aspergillus fumigatus. Our previous work demonstrated that human pDCs bind to and inhibit the growth of A. fumigatus hyphae. Moreover, depletion of pDCs rendered mice very susceptible to experimental infection with A. fumigatus. Here, we show that Dectin-2, a receptor on pDCs, recognizes A. fumigatus hyphae and contributes to cytokine release and antifungal activity. In addition, using confocal and electron microscopy, we demonstrate that upon contact with hyphae, some human pDCs die and form antimicrobial structures called extracellular traps. Finally, using microarrays, we analyzed human pDC gene expression upon A. fumigatus infection and found distinct patterns including the activation of genes previously associated with viral infections and apoptosis. These results provide new insights into the mechanisms by which pDCs might help the immune system when confronted with a fungal invader.
Zdroje
1. Shoham S, Levitz SM (2005) The immune response to fungal infections. Br J Haematol 129 : 569–582. 15916679
2. Hohl TM, Feldmesser M (2007) Aspergillus fumigatus: principles of pathogenesis and host defense. Eukaryot Cell 6 : 1953–1963. 17890370
3. Rubino I, Coste A, Le Roy D, Roger T, Jaton K, et al. (2012) Species-specific recognition of Aspergillus fumigatus by Toll-like receptor 1 and Toll-like receptor 6 J Infect Dis 205 : 944–954. doi: 10.1093/infdis/jir882 22315281
4. Gersuk GM, Underhill DM, Zhu L, Marr KA (2006) Dectin-1 and TLRs permit macrophages to distinguish between different Aspergillus fumigatus cellular states. J Immunol 176 : 3717–3724. 16517740
5. Sun H, Su X, Wu XD, et al. (2013) Dectin-2 is predominately macrophage restricted and exhibits conspicuous expression during Aspergillus fumigatus invasion in human lung. Cell Immunol 284 : 60–67. doi: 10.1016/j.cellimm.2013.06.013 23928558
6. Carrion Sde J, Shao HT, Leal SM Jr, Ghannoum MA, Aimanianda V, Latgé JP, et al. (2013) The RodA hydrophobin on Aspergillus fumigatus spores masks dectin-1 - and dectin-2-dependent responses and enhances fungal survival in vivo. J Immunol 191 : 2581–2588. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1300748 23926321
7. Goldmann O, Medina E (2013) The expanding world of extracellular traps: not only neutrophils but much more. Front Immunol 420 : 1–10.
8. Bruns S, Kniemeyer O, Hasenberg M, Aimanianda V, Nietzsche S, et al. (2010) Production of extracellular traps against Aspergillus fumigatus in vitro and in infected lung tissue is dependent on invading neutrophils and influenced by hydrophobin RodA. PLoS Pathog 29: e1000873.
9. Simon D, Simon HU, Yousefi S (2013) Extracellular DNA traps in allergic, infectious, and autoimmune diseases. Allergy 68 : 409–416. doi: 10.1111/all.12111 23409745
10. Swiecki M, Colonna M (2010) Unraveling the functions of plasmacytoid dendritic cells during viral infections, autoimmunity, and tolerance. Immunol Rev 234 : 142–162. doi: 10.1111/j.0105-2896.2009.00881.x 20193017
11. Yu CF, Peng WM, Oldenburg J, Hoch J, Bieber T, et al. (2010) Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells support Th17 cell effector function in response to TLR7 ligation. J Immunol 184 : 1159–1167. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901706 20026744
12. Guéry L, Hugues S (2013) Tolerogenic and activatory plasmacytoid dendritic cells in autoimmunity. Front Immunol 59 : 1–11.
13. Santana-de Anda K, Gómez-Martín D, Soto-Solís R, Alcocer-Varela J (2013) Plasmacytoid dendritic cells: key players in viral infections and autoimmune diseases. Semin Arthritis Rheum 43 : 131–136. doi: 10.1016/j.semarthrit.2012.12.026 23462050
14. Maazi H, Lam J, Lombardi V, Akbari O (2013) Role of plasmacytoid dendritic cell subsets in allergic asthma. Allergy 68 : 695–701. doi: 10.1111/all.12166 23662841
15. Parcina M, Miranda-Garcia MA, Durlanik S, Ziegler S, Over B, et al. (2013) Pathogen-triggered activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells induces IL-10-producing B cells in response to Staphylococcus aureus. J Immunol 190 : 1591–602. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1201222 23325892
16. Crother TR, Ma J, Jupelli M, Chiba N, Chen S, et al. (2012) Plasmacytoid dendritic cells play a role for effective innate immune responses during Chlamydia pneumoniae infection in mice. PLoS One 7: e48655. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0048655 23119083
17. Ang DK, Oates CV, Schuelein R, Kelly M, Sansom FM, et al. (2010) Cutting edge: pulmonary Legionella pneumophila is controlled by plasmacytoid dendritic cells but not type I IFN. J Immunol 184 : 5429–5433. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.1000128 20400697
18. Ramirez-Ortiz ZG, Specht CA, Wang JP, Lee CK, Bartholomeu DC, et al. (2008) Toll-like receptor 9-dependent immune activation by unmethylated CpG motifs in Aspergillus fumigatus DNA. Infect Immun 76 : 2123–2129. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00047-08 18332208
19. Ramirez-Ortiz ZG, Lee CK, Wang JP, Boon L, Specht CA, et al. (2011) A nonredundant role for plasmacytoid dendritic cells in host defense against the human fungal pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus. Cell Host Microbe 9 : 415–424. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2011.04.007 21575912
20. Pina A, de Araujo EF, Felonato M, Loures FV, Feriotti C, et al. (2013). Myeloid dendritic cells (DCs) of mice susceptible to paracoccidioidomycosis suppress T cell responses whereas myeloid and plasmacytoid DCs from resistant mice induce effector and regulatory T cells. Infect Immun 81 : 1064–1077. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00736-12 23340311
21. Sainz J, Lupiáñez CB, Segura-Catena J, Vazquez L, Ríos R, et al. (2012) Dectin-1 and DC-SIGN polymorphisms associated with invasive pulmonary Aspergillosis infection. PLoS One 7: e32273. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032273 22384201
22. Gessner MA, Werner JL, Lilly LM, Nelson MP, Metz AE, et al. (2012) Dectin-1-dependent interleukin-22 contributes to early innate lung defense against Aspergillus fumigatus. Infect Immun 80 : 410–417. doi: 10.1128/IAI.05939-11 22038916
23. Rivera A, Hohl TM, Collins N, Leiner I, Gallegos A, et al. (2011) Dectin-1 diversifies Aspergillus fumigatus-specific T cell responses by inhibiting T helper type 1 CD4 T cell differentiation. J Exp Med 208 : 369–381. doi: 10.1084/jem.20100906 21242294
24. Lande R, Gilliet M (2010) Plasmacytoid dendritic cells: key players in the initiation and regulation of immune responses. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1183 : 89–103. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.05152.x 20146710
25. Graham LM, Brown GD (2009) The Dectin-2 family of C-type lectins in immunity and homeostasis. Cytokine 48 : 148–155. doi: 10.1016/j.cyto.2009.07.010 19665392
26. Robinson MJ, Osorio F, Rosas M, Freitas RP, Schweighoffer E, et al. (2009) Dectin-2 is a Syk-coupled pattern recognition receptor crucial for Th17 responses to fungal infection. J Exp Med 206 : 2037–2051. doi: 10.1084/jem.20082818 19703985
27. Branzk N, Lubojemska A, Hardison SE, Wang Q, Gutierrez MG, et al. (2014) Neutrophils sense microbe size and selectively release neutrophil extracellular traps in response to large pathogens. Nat Immunol 15 : 1017–1025. doi: 10.1038/ni.2987 25217981
28. Garcia-Romo GS, Caielli S, Vega B, Connolly J, Allantaz F, et al. (2011). Netting neutrophils are major inducers of type I IFN production in pediatric systemic lupus erythematosus. Sci Transl Med 3 : 73ra20. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.3001201 21389264
29. Urban CF, Ermert D, Schmid M, Abu-Abed U, Goosmann C, et al. (2009) Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Contain Calprotectin, a Cytosolic Protein Complex Involved in Host Defense against Candida albicans. PLoS Pathog 5: e1000639. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000639 19876394
30. McCormick A, Heesemann L, Wagener J, Marcos V, Hartl D, et al. (2010) NETs formed by human neutrophils inhibit growth of the pathogenic mold Aspergillus fumigatus. Microbes Infect 12 : 928–936. doi: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.06.009 20603224
31. Bianchi M, Niemiec MJ, Siler U, Urban CF, Reichenbach J (2011) Restoration of anti-Aspergillus defense by neutrophil extracellular traps in human chronic granulomatous disease after gene therapy is calprotectin-dependent. J Allergy Clin Immunol 127 : 1243–1252. doi: 10.1016/j.jaci.2011.01.021 21376380
32. Ryan EJ, Marshall AJ, Magaletti D, Floyd H, Draves KE, et al. (2002) Dendritic cell-associated lectin-1: a novel dendritic cell-associated, C-type lectin-like molecule enhances T cell secretion of IL-4. J Immunol 169 : 5638–5648. 12421943
33. Boles KS, Barten R, Kumaresan PR, Trowsdale J, Mathew PA (1999) Cloning of a new lectin-like receptor expressed on human NK cells. Immunogenetics 50 : 1–7. 10541800
34. Germain C, Meier A, Jensen T, Knapnougel P, Poupon G, et al. (2011) Induction of lectin-like transcript 1 (LLT1) protein cell surface expression by pathogens and interferon-γ contributes to modulate immune responses. J Biol Chem 286 : 37964–3775. doi: 10.1074/jbc.M111.285312 21930700
35. Chen CH, Floyd H, Olson NE, Magaletti D, Li C, et al. (2005) Dendritic-cell-associated C-type lectin 2 (DCAL-2) alters dendritic-cell maturation and cytokine production. Blood 107 : 1459–1467. 16239426
36. Marshall AS, Willment JA, Pyz E, Dennehy KM, Reid DM, et al. (2006) Human MICL (CLEC12A) is differentially glycosylated and is down-regulated following cellular activation. Eur J Immunol 36 : 2159–2169. 16838277
37. Katze MG, He Y, Gale M Jr (2002) Viruses and interferon: a fight for supremacy. Nat Rev Immunol 2 : 675–687. 12209136
38. Levitz SM (2010) Innate Recognition of Fungal Cell Walls. PLoS Pathog 6: e1000758. doi: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1000758 20421940
39. Brown GD (2011) Innate Antifungal Immunity: The Key Role of Phagocytes. Annu Rev Immunol 29 : 1–21. doi: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-030409-101229 20936972
40. Mambula SS, Sau K, Henneke P, Golenbock DT, Levitz SM (2002) Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling in response to Aspergillus fumigatus. J Biol Chem 277 : 39320–39326. 12171914
41. Meyer-Wentrup F, Benitez-Ribas D, Tacken PJ, Punt CJ, Figdor CG, et al. (2008) Targeting DCIR on human plasmacytoid dendritic cells results in antigen presentation and inhibits IFN-alpha production. Blood 111 : 4245–4253. doi: 10.1182/blood-2007-03-081398 18258799
42. Gavino AC, Chung JS, Sato K, Ariizumi K, Cruz PD Jr (2005) Identification and expression profiling of a human C-type lectin, structurally homologous to mouse dectin-2. Exp Dermatol 14 : 281–288. 15810886
43. Gill MA, Bajwa G, George TA, Dong CC, Dougherty II, et al. (2010) Counterregulation between the FcepsilonRI pathway and antiviral responses in human plasmacytoid dendritic cells. J Immunol 184 : 5999–6006. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0901194 20410486
44. Seeds RE, Mukhopadhyay S, Jones IM, Gordon S, Miller JL (2011) The role of myeloid receptors on murine plasmacytoid dendritic cells in induction of type I interferon. Int Immunopharmacol 11 : 794–801. doi: 10.1016/j.intimp.2011.01.013 21281752
45. Taylor PR, Roy S, Leal SM Jr, Sun Y, Howell SJ, et al. (2014) Activation of neutrophils by autocrine IL-17A-IL-17RC interactions during fungal infection is regulated by IL-6, IL-23, RORγt and dectin-2. Nat Immunol 15 : 143–151. doi: 10.1038/ni.2797 24362892
46. Grouard G, Rissoan MC, Filgueira L, Durand I, Banchereau J, et al. (1997) The enigmatic plasmacytoid T cells develop into dendritic cells with interleukin (IL)-3 and CD40-ligand. J Exp Med 185 : 1101–1111. 9091583
47. Lepelletier Y, Zollinger R, Ghirelli C, Raynaud F, Hadj-Slimane R, et al. (2010) Toll-like receptor control of glucocorticoid-induced apoptosis in human plasmacytoid pre-dendritic cells (pDC). Blood 116 : 3389–3397. doi: 10.1182/blood-2010-05-282913 20592251
48. Röhm M, Grimm MJ, D’Auria AC, Almyroudis NG, Segal BH, et al. (2014) NADPH oxidase promotes neutrophil extracellular trap formation in pulmonary aspergillosis. Infect Immun 82 : 1766–1777. doi: 10.1128/IAI.00096-14 24549323
49. Brinkmann V, Reichard U, Goosmann C, Fauler B, Uhlemann Y, et al. (2004) Neutrophil extracellular traps kill bacteria. Science 303 : 1532–1535. 15001782
50. Bianchi M, Hakkim A, Brinkmann V, Siler U, Seger RA, et al. (2009) Restoration of NET formation by gene therapy in CGD controls aspergillosis. Blood 114 : 2619–2622. doi: 10.1182/blood-2009-05-221606 19541821
51. Urban CF, Reichard U, Brinkmann V, Zychlinsky A (2006) Neutrophil extracellular traps capture and kill Candida albicans yeast and hyphal forms. Cell Microbiol 8 : 668–676. 16548892
52. Wang Y, Li M, Stadler S, Correll S, Li P, et al. (2009) Histone hypercitrullination mediates chromatin decondensation and neutrophil extracellular trap formation. J Cell Biol 184 : 205–213. doi: 10.1083/jcb.200806072 19153223
53. Barkhash AV, Perelygin AA, Babenko VN, Myasnikova NG, Pilipenko PI, et al. (2010) Variability in the 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase gene cluster is associated with human predisposition to tick-borne encephalitis virus-induced disease. J Infect Dis 202 : 1813–1818. doi: 10.1086/657418 21050126
54. Tang Y, Zhong G, Zhu L, Liu X, Shan Y, et al. (2010) Herc5 attenuates influenza A virus by catalyzing ISGylation of viral NS1 protein. J Immunol 184 : 5777–5790. doi: 10.4049/jimmunol.0903588 20385878
55. Unterholzner L, Keating SE, Baran M, Horan KA, Jensen SB, et al. (2010) IFI16 is an innate immune sensor for intracellular DNA. Nat Immunol 11 : 997–1004. doi: 10.1038/ni.1932 20890285
56. Lusic M, Marini B, Ali H, Lucic B, Luzzati R, et al. (2013) Proximity to PML nuclear bodies regulates HIV-1 latency in CD4+ T cells. Cell Host Microbe 13 : 665–677. doi: 10.1016/j.chom.2013.05.006 23768491
57. Miyashita M, Oshiumi H, Matsumoto M, Seya T (2011) DDX60, a DEXD/H box helicase, is a novel antiviral factor promoting RIG-I-like receptor-mediated signaling. Mol Cell Biol 31 : 3802–3819. doi: 10.1128/MCB.01368-10 21791617
58. Challa S, Chan FK (2010) Going up in flames: necrotic cell injury and inflammatory diseases. Cell Mol Life Sci 67 : 3241–3253. doi: 10.1007/s00018-010-0413-8 20532807
59. Carpenter S, Ricci EP, Mercier BC, Moore MJ, Fitzgerald KA (2014) Post-transcriptional regulation of gene expression in innate immunity. Nat Rev Immunol 14 : 361–376. doi: 10.1038/nri3682 24854588
60. Zhou H, Huang X, Cui H, Luo X, Tang Y, et al. (2010) miR-155 and its star-form partner miR-155* cooperatively regulate type I interferon production by human plasmacytoid dendritic cells. Blood 116 : 5885–5894. doi: 10.1182/blood-2010-04-280156 20852130
61. Nierman WC, Pain A, Anderson MJ, Wortman JR, Kim HS, et al. (2005) Genomic sequence of the pathogenic and allergenic filamentous fungus Aspergillus fumigatus. Nature 438 : 1151–1156. 16372009
62. Wang JP, Liu P, Latz E, Golenbock DT, Finberg RW, et al. (2006) Flavivirus activation of plasmacytoid dendritic cells delineates key elements of TLR7 signaling beyond endosomal recognition. J Immunol 177 : 7114–7121. 17082628
63. Meshulam T, Levitz SM, Christin L, Diamond RD (1995) A simplified new assay for assessment of fungal cell damage with the tetrazolium dye, (2,3)-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulphenyl)-(2H)-tetrazolium-5-carboxanil ide (XTT). J Infect Dis 172 : 1153–1156. 7561202
64. Karttunen J, Sanderson S, Shastri N (1992) Detection of rare antigen-presenting cells by the lacZ T-cell activation assay suggests an expression cloning strategy for T-cell antigens. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 89 : 6020–6024. 1378619
65. Cao SX, Dhahbi JM, Mote PL, Spindler SR (2001) Genomic profiling of short - and long-term caloric restriction effects in the liver of aging mice. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 98 : 10630–10635. 11535822
Štítky
Hygiena a epidemiológia Infekčné lekárstvo Laboratórium
Článek 2014 Reviewer Thank YouČlánek Characterization of Metabolically Quiescent Parasites in Murine Lesions Using Heavy Water LabelingČlánek High Heritability Is Compatible with the Broad Distribution of Set Point Viral Load in HIV Carriers
Článok vyšiel v časopisePLOS Pathogens
Najčítanejšie tento týždeň
2015 Číslo 2- Parazitičtí červi v terapii Crohnovy choroby a dalších zánětlivých autoimunitních onemocnění
- Očkování proti virové hemoragické horečce Ebola experimentální vakcínou rVSVDG-ZEBOV-GP
- Koronavirus hýbe světem: Víte jak se chránit a jak postupovat v případě podezření?
-
Všetky články tohto čísla
- 2014 Reviewer Thank You
- A Case for Two-Component Signaling Systems As Antifungal Drug Targets
- Prions—Not Your Immunologist’s Pathogen
- Telomeric ORFS in : Does Mediator Tail Wag the Yeast?
- Livestock-Associated : The United States Experience
- The Neurotrophic Receptor Ntrk2 Directs Lymphoid Tissue Neovascularization during Infection
- The Intracellular Bacterium Uses Parasitoid Wasps as Phoretic Vectors for Efficient Horizontal Transmission
- CD200 Receptor Restriction of Myeloid Cell Responses Antagonizes Antiviral Immunity and Facilitates Cytomegalovirus Persistence within Mucosal Tissue
- Phage-mediated Dispersal of Biofilm and Distribution of Bacterial Virulence Genes Is Induced by Quorum Sensing
- CXCL9 Contributes to Antimicrobial Protection of the Gut during Infection Independent of Chemokine-Receptor Signaling
- Mitigation of Prion Infectivity and Conversion Capacity by a Simulated Natural Process—Repeated Cycles of Drying and Wetting
- Approaches Reveal a Key Role for DCs in CD4+ T Cell Activation and Parasite Clearance during the Acute Phase of Experimental Blood-Stage Malaria
- Revealing the Sequence and Resulting Cellular Morphology of Receptor-Ligand Interactions during Invasion of Erythrocytes
- Crystal Structures of the Carboxyl cGMP Binding Domain of the cGMP-dependent Protein Kinase Reveal a Novel Capping Triad Crucial for Merozoite Egress
- Non-redundant and Redundant Roles of Cytomegalovirus gH/gL Complexes in Host Organ Entry and Intra-tissue Spread
- Characterization of Metabolically Quiescent Parasites in Murine Lesions Using Heavy Water Labeling
- A Working Model of How Noroviruses Infect the Intestine
- CD44 Plays a Functional Role in -induced Epithelial Cell Proliferation
- Novel Inhibitors of Cholesterol Degradation in Reveal How the Bacterium’s Metabolism Is Constrained by the Intracellular Environment
- G-Quadruplexes in Pathogens: A Common Route to Virulence Control?
- A Rho GDP Dissociation Inhibitor Produced by Apoptotic T-Cells Inhibits Growth of
- Manipulating Adenovirus Hexon Hypervariable Loops Dictates Immune Neutralisation and Coagulation Factor X-dependent Cell Interaction and
- The RhoGAP SPIN6 Associates with SPL11 and OsRac1 and Negatively Regulates Programmed Cell Death and Innate Immunity in Rice
- Lymph-Node Resident CD8α Dendritic Cells Capture Antigens from Migratory Malaria Sporozoites and Induce CD8 T Cell Responses
- Coordinated Function of Cellular DEAD-Box Helicases in Suppression of Viral RNA Recombination and Maintenance of Viral Genome Integrity
- IL-33-Mediated Protection against Experimental Cerebral Malaria Is Linked to Induction of Type 2 Innate Lymphoid Cells, M2 Macrophages and Regulatory T Cells
- Evasion of Autophagy and Intracellular Killing by Human Myeloid Dendritic Cells Involves DC-SIGN-TLR2 Crosstalk
- CD8 T Cell Response Maturation Defined by Anentropic Specificity and Repertoire Depth Correlates with SIVΔnef-induced Protection
- Diverse Heterologous Primary Infections Radically Alter Immunodominance Hierarchies and Clinical Outcomes Following H7N9 Influenza Challenge in Mice
- Human Adenovirus 52 Uses Sialic Acid-containing Glycoproteins and the Coxsackie and Adenovirus Receptor for Binding to Target Cells
- Super-Resolution Imaging of ESCRT-Proteins at HIV-1 Assembly Sites
- Disruption of an Membrane Protein Causes a Magnesium-dependent Cell Division Defect and Failure to Persist in Mice
- Recognition of Hyphae by Human Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Is Mediated by Dectin-2 and Results in Formation of Extracellular Traps
- Essential Domains of Invasins Utilized to Infect Mammalian Host Cells
- High Heritability Is Compatible with the Broad Distribution of Set Point Viral Load in HIV Carriers
- Yeast Prions: Proteins Templating Conformation and an Anti-prion System
- A Novel Mechanism of Bacterial Toxin Transfer within Host Blood Cell-Derived Microvesicles
- A Wild Strain Has Enhanced Epithelial Immunity to a Natural Microsporidian Parasite
- Control of Murine Cytomegalovirus Infection by γδ T Cells
- Dimorphism in Fungal Pathogens of Mammals, Plants, and Insects
- Recognition and Activation Domains Contribute to Allele-Specific Responses of an Arabidopsis NLR Receptor to an Oomycete Effector Protein
- Direct Binding of Retromer to Human Papillomavirus Type 16 Minor Capsid Protein L2 Mediates Endosome Exit during Viral Infection
- Characterization of the Mycobacterial Acyl-CoA Carboxylase Holo Complexes Reveals Their Functional Expansion into Amino Acid Catabolism
- Prion Infections and Anti-PrP Antibodies Trigger Converging Neurotoxic Pathways
- Evolution of Genome Size and Complexity in the
- Antibiotic Modulation of Capsular Exopolysaccharide and Virulence in
- IFNγ Signaling Endows DCs with the Capacity to Control Type I Inflammation during Parasitic Infection through Promoting T-bet+ Regulatory T Cells
- Identification of Effective Subdominant Anti-HIV-1 CD8+ T Cells Within Entire Post-infection and Post-vaccination Immune Responses
- Viral and Cellular Proteins Containing FGDF Motifs Bind G3BP to Block Stress Granule Formation
- ATPaseTb2, a Unique Membrane-bound FoF1-ATPase Component, Is Essential in Bloodstream and Dyskinetoplastic Trypanosomes
- Cytoplasmic Actin Is an Extracellular Insect Immune Factor which Is Secreted upon Immune Challenge and Mediates Phagocytosis and Direct Killing of Bacteria, and Is a Antagonist
- A Specific A/T Polymorphism in Western Tyrosine Phosphorylation B-Motifs Regulates CagA Epithelial Cell Interactions
- Within-host Competition Does Not Select for Virulence in Malaria Parasites; Studies with
- A Membrane-bound eIF2 Alpha Kinase Located in Endosomes Is Regulated by Heme and Controls Differentiation and ROS Levels in
- Cytosolic Access of : Critical Impact of Phagosomal Acidification Control and Demonstration of Occurrence
- Role of Pentraxin 3 in Shaping Arthritogenic Alphaviral Disease: From Enhanced Viral Replication to Immunomodulation
- Rational Development of an Attenuated Recombinant Cyprinid Herpesvirus 3 Vaccine Using Prokaryotic Mutagenesis and In Vivo Bioluminescent Imaging
- HITS-CLIP Analysis Uncovers a Link between the Kaposi’s Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus ORF57 Protein and Host Pre-mRNA Metabolism
- Molecular and Functional Analyses of a Maize Autoactive NB-LRR Protein Identify Precise Structural Requirements for Activity
- PLOS Pathogens
- Archív čísel
- Aktuálne číslo
- Informácie o časopise
Najčítanejšie v tomto čísle- Control of Murine Cytomegalovirus Infection by γδ T Cells
- ATPaseTb2, a Unique Membrane-bound FoF1-ATPase Component, Is Essential in Bloodstream and Dyskinetoplastic Trypanosomes
- Rational Development of an Attenuated Recombinant Cyprinid Herpesvirus 3 Vaccine Using Prokaryotic Mutagenesis and In Vivo Bioluminescent Imaging
- Telomeric ORFS in : Does Mediator Tail Wag the Yeast?
Prihlásenie#ADS_BOTTOM_SCRIPTS#Zabudnuté hesloZadajte e-mailovú adresu, s ktorou ste vytvárali účet. Budú Vám na ňu zasielané informácie k nastaveniu nového hesla.
- Časopisy