#PAGE_PARAMS# #ADS_HEAD_SCRIPTS# #MICRODATA#

Randomized control trial of Tools of the Mind: Marked benefits to kindergarten children and their teachers


Autoři: Adele Diamond aff001;  Chris Lee aff001;  Peter Senften aff001;  Andrea Lam aff001;  David Abbott aff001
Působiště autorů: Program in Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada aff001
Vyšlo v časopise: PLoS ONE 14(9)
Kategorie: Research Article
prolekare.web.journal.doi_sk: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0222447

Souhrn

The kindergarten program, Tools of the Mind (Tools), has been shown to improve executive functions (as assessed by laboratory measures) and academic performance. The objective here was to see if Tools can improve executive functions in the real world (in the classroom), academic outcomes not previously investigated, reduce bullying and peer ostracism, and increase teachers’ and students’ joy in being in the classroom. This first randomized controlled trial of Tools in Canada included 351 kindergarten children (mean age 5.2 years at entry; 51% female) in 18 public schools. Stratified randomization resulted in teachers and students in both groups being closely matched. Teachers in both groups received the same number of training hours and same funds for new materials. Outcome measures were pre and post standardized academic skill assessments and teacher online survey responses. This study replicated that Tools improves reading and shows for the first time that it improves writing (far exceeding levels the school districts had seen before), self-control and attention-regulation in the real world (e.g., time on task without supervision), reduces teacher burnout and children being ostracized or excluded, and increases the joy students and teachers experience in school. By Spring, Tools teachers were still enthusiastic about teaching; control teachers were exhausted. These results were not only better than the control group but also better than Tools teachers experienced the year before Tools. Thus, children in a kindergarten curriculum that emphasized play, improving self-regulation, working together and helping one another, and hands-on learning performed better academically, showed less bullying and peer ostracism and more kindness and helping behavior than students in more traditional classes, and teacher enthusiasm for teaching soared. Tools reduced initial disparities separating children, schools, and teachers.

Klíčová slova:

Biology and life sciences – Neuroscience – Cognitive science – Cognitive psychology – Learning – Human learning – Learning and memory – Psychology – Social sciences – Sociology – People and places – Population groupings – Professions – Teachers – Medicine and health sciences – Education – Schools – Age groups – Children – Families – Psychological stress – Mental health and psychiatry – Language – Academic skills


Zdroje

1. Allan NP, Hume LE, Allan DM, Farrington AL, Lonigan CJ. Relations between inhibitory control and the development of academic skills in preschool and kindergarten: A meta-analysis. Dev Psychol. 2014;50: 2368–79. doi: 10.1037/a0037493 25069051

2. Gilmore C, Attridge N, Clayton S, Cragg L, Johnson S, Marlow N, et al. Individual differences in inhibitory control, not non-verbal number acuity, correlate with mathematics achievement. PLoS One. 2013;8: e67374. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067374 23785521

3. Lubin A, Vidal J, Lanoë C, Houdé O, Borst G. Inhibitory control is needed for the resolution of arithmetic word problems: a developmental negative priming study. J Educ Psychol. 2013;105: 701–8.

4. Marzocchi GM. Lucangeli D, De Meo T, Fini F, Comoldi C. The disturbing effect of irrelevant information on arithmetic problem solving in inattentive children. Dev Neuropsychol. 2002;21: 73–92. doi: 10.1207/S15326942DN2101_4 12058836

5. Bailey CE. Cognitive accuracy and intelligent executive function in the brain and in business. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2007;1118: 122–41. doi: 10.1196/annals.1412.011 17717092

6. Moffitt TE, Arseneault L, Belsky D, Dickson N, Hancox RJ, Harrington H, et al. A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2011;108: 2693–8. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1010076108 21262822

7. Miller HV, Barnes JC, Beaver KM. Self-control and health outcomes in a nationally representative sample. Am J Health Behav 2011;35(1): 15–27. 20950155

8. Riggs NR, Spruijt-Metz D, Sakuma K-L, Chou C-P, Pentz MA. Executive cognitive function and food intake in children. J Nutr Educ Behav. 2010;42: 398–403. doi: 10.1016/j.jneb.2009.11.003 20719568

9. Brown TE, Landgraf JM. Improvements in executive function correlate with enhanced performance and functioning and health-related quality of life: Evidence from 2 large, double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trials in ADHD. Postgraduate Medicine. 2010;122(5): 42–51. doi: 10.3810/pgm.2010.09.2200 20861587

10. Davis JC, Marra CA, Najafzadeh M, Lui-Ambrose T. The independent contribution of executive functions to health related quality of life in older women. BMC Geriatr. 2010;10(1): 16–23.

11. Moffitt TE. Childhood self-control predicts adult health, wealth, and crime. Trygfonden Multi-Disciplinary Symposium Improving the Well-Being of Children and Youth. Copenhagen.2012.

12. Alloway TP, Alloway RG. Investigating the predictive roles of working memory and IQ in academic attainment. J Exp Child Psychol. 2010;106: 20–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jecp.2009.11.003 20018296

13. Duckworth AL, Seligman MEP. Self-discipline outdoes IQ in predicting academic performance of adolescents. Psychol Sci. 2005;16: 939–44. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01641.x 16313657

14. Evans GW, Rosenbaum J. Self-regulation and the income achievement gap. Early Child Res Q. 2008;23: 504–14.

15. O’Shaughnessy T, Lane KL, Gresham FM, Beebe-Frankenberger M. Children placed at risk for learning and behavioral difficulties: Implementing a school-wide system of early identification and prevention. Remedial Spec Educ. 2003;24: 27–35.

16. Asada Y, Yoshida Y, Whipp AM. Summarizing social disparities in health. Milbank Q. 2013;91(1): 5–36. doi: 10.1111/milq.12001 23488710

17. Hertzman C, Boyce T. How experience gets under the skin to create gradients in developmental health. Annu Rev Public Health. 2010;31(1): 329–47.

18. Durlak JA, Weissberg RP, Dymnicki AB, Taylor RD, & Schellinger KB. The impact of enhancing students’ social and emotional learning: a meta-analysis of school-based universal interventions. Child Dev. 2011;82: 405–32. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2010.01564.x 21291449

19. Jones DE, Greenberg MT, Crowley M. Early social-emotional functioning and public health: The relationship between kindergarten social competence and future wellness. Am J Public Health. 2015;105: 2283–90. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2015.302630 26180975

20. Kiuru N, Aunola K, Lerkkanen MK, Pakarinen E, Poskiparta E, Ahonen T, et al. Positive teacher and peer relations combine to predict primary school students’ academic skill development. Dev Psychol. 2015;51: 434–46. doi: 10.1037/a0038911 25751095

21. Zins JE, Bloodworth MR. Weissberg RP, Walberg HJ. The scientific base linking social and emotional learning to school success. J Educ Psychol Consult. 2007;17: 191–210.

22. Manrique M, Allwood MA, Pugach CP, Amoh N, Cerbone A. Time and support do not heal all wounds: Mental health correlates of past bullying among college students. J Am Coll Health. 2019: 1–9.

23. Schoeler T, Duncan L, Cecil CM, Ploubidis GB, Pingault J-B. Quasi-experimental evidence on short- and long-term consequences of bullying victimization: A meta-analysis. Psychol Bull. 2018;144: 1229–46. doi: 10.1037/bul0000171 30475016

24. Haynes M. On the path to equity: Improving the effectiveness of beginning teachers. Alliance for Excellent Education Brief Online J. 2014;14: 1–17.

25. Aloe AM, Amo LC, Shanahan ME. Classroom management self efficacy and burnout: a multivariate meta-analysis. Educ Psychol Rev. 2014;26(1): 101–26.

26. Heinemann LV, Heinemann T. Burnout research: Emergence and scientific investigation of a contested diagnosis. SAGE Open. 2017;7: 1–12.

27. Bierman KL, Nix RL, Greenberg MT, Blair C, Domitrovich CE. Executive function and school readiness intervention: impact, moderation and mediation in the head start REDI program. Dev Psychopathol. 2008;20: 821–43. doi: 10.1017/S0954579408000394 18606033

28. Curby TW, Brown CA, Bassett HH, Denham SA. Associations between preschoolers’ social-emotional competence and preliteracy skills. Infant Child Dev. 2015;24: 549–70.

29. Denham SA, Bassett HH, Brown C, Way E, Steed J. “I know how you feel”: preschoolers’ emotion knowledge contributes to early school success. J Early Child Res. 2013; 13: 252–262.

30. Espy KA, McDiarmid MM, Cwik MF, Stalets MM, Hamby A, Senn TE. The contribution of executive functions to emergent mathematic skills in preschool children. Dev Neuropsychol. 2004;26: 465–486. doi: 10.1207/s15326942dn2601_6 15276905

31. McClelland MM, Acock AC, Piccinin A, Rhea SA, Stallings MC. Relations between preschool attention span-persistence and age 25 educational outcomes. Early Child Res Q. 2013;28: 314–324. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2012.07.008 23543916

32. Watts TW, Gandhi J, Ibrahim DA, Masucci MD, Raver CC. The Chicago School Readiness Project: examining the long-term impacts of an early childhood intervention. PLoS One. 2018;13: e0200144. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0200144 30001339

33. Chetty R, Friedman JN, Hilger N, Saez E, Schanzenbach DW, Yagan D. How does your kindergarten classroom affect your earnings? Evidence from Project STAR. Q J Econ. 2011; 126: 1593–1660. 22256342

34. Diamond A. Executive functions. Annu Rev Psychol. 2013;64: 135–68. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750 23020641

35. Nakamichi K. Differences in young children’s peer preference by inhibitory control and emotion regulation. Psychol Rep. 2017; 120: 805–23.

36. Rhoades BL, Greenberg MT, Domitrovich CE. The contribution of inhibitory control to preschoolers’ social-emotional competence. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2009;30: 310–20.

37. Riggs NR, Jahromi LB, Razza RP, Dillworth-Bart JE, Mueller U. Executive function and the promotion of social-emotional competence. J Appl Dev Psychol. 2006;27: 300–9.

38. Blair C, McKinnon RD, Family Life Project Investigators. Moderating effects of executive functions and the teacher-child relationship on the development of mathematics ability in kindergarten. Learn Instr. 2016;41: 85–93.

39. Ladd GW, Birch SH, Buhs ES. Children’s social and scholastic lives in kindergarten: related spheres of influence? Child Dev. 1999;70: 1373–400. 10621962

40. Rotenberg KJ, Michalik N, Eisenberg N, Betts LR. The relations among young children’s peer-reported trustworthiness, inhibitory control, and preschool adjustment. Early Child Res Q. 2008;23: 288–98. doi: 10.1016/j.ecresq.2007.04.003 18846246

41. Baumeister RF, DeWall CN, Ciarocco NJ, Twenge JM. Social exclusion impairs self-regulation. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2005;88: 589–604. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.88.4.589 15796662

42. Cacioppo J, Patrick W. Loneliness: Human nature and the need for social connection. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Co., Inc.; 2008.

43. Layden EA, Cacioppo JT, Cacioppo S, Cappa SF, Dodich A, Falini A, et al. Perceived social isolation is associated with altered functional connectivity in neural networks associated with tonic alertness and executive control. Neuroimage. 2017;145: 58–73. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2016.09.050 27664824

44. Benner AD. Latino adolescents’ loneliness, academic performance, and the buffering nature of friendships. J Youth Adolesc. 2011;40: 556–67. doi: 10.1007/s10964-010-9561-2 20571900

45. Miller G. Why loneliness is hazardous to your health. Science. 2011;331(6014): 138–40. doi: 10.1126/science.331.6014.138 21233358

46. Lynch JJ. Broken heart: the medical consequences of loneliness. New York: Basic Books; 1977.

47. Lyyra N, Välimaa R, Tynjälä J. Loneliness and subjective health complaints among school-aged children. Scand J Public Health. 2018;46: 87–93. doi: 10.1177/1403494817743901 29552967

48. Arnsten AFT. Stress signalling pathways that impair prefrontal cortex structure and function. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2009;10: 410–22. doi: 10.1038/nrn2648 19455173

49. Duckworth AL, Kim B, Tsukayama E. Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence. Front Psychol. 2013;3(608): 1–12.

50. Liston C, McEwen BS, Casey BJ. Psychosocial stress reversibly disrupts prefrontal processing and attentional control. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2009;106: 912–7. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0807041106 19139412

51. Kauts A, Sharma N. Effect of yoga on academic performance in relation to stress. Int J Yoga. 2009;2(1): 39–43. doi: 10.4103/0973-6131.53860 21234215

52. Ng V, Koh D, Chia SE. Examination stress, salivary cortisol, and academic performance. Psychol Rep. 2003;93: 1133–4. doi: 10.2466/pr0.2003.93.3f.1133 14765582

53. Sheridan CL, Smith LK. Stress and academic achievement in teenagers: assessment and intervention. J Psychosom Res. 1987;34(2): 20–4.

54. Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Miller GE. Psychological stress and disease. JAMA. 2007;298: 1685–7. doi: 10.1001/jama.298.14.1685 17925521

55. Cohen S, Janicki-Deverts D, Doyle WJ, Miller GE, Frank E, Rabin BS, et al. Chronic stress, glucocorticoid receptor resistance, inflammation, and disease risk. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2012;109: 5995–9. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1118355109 22474371

56. Segerstrom SC, Miller GE. Psychological stress and the human immune system: a meta-analytic study of 30 years of inquiry. Psychol Bull. 2004;130: 601–30. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.130.4.601 15250815

57. Ashby F, Isen A, Turken A. A neuropsychological theory of positive affect and its influence on cognition. Psychol Rev. 1999;106: 529–50. 10467897

58. Hirt ER, Devers EE, McCrea SM. I want to be creative: Exploring the role of hedonic contingency theory in the positive mood-cognitive flexibility link. J Pers Soc Psychol. 2008;94: 214–30. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.94.2.94.2.214 18211173

59. von Hecker U, Meiser T. Defocused attention in depressed mood: Evidence from source monitoring. Emotion. 2005;5: 456–63. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.4.456 16366749

60. Kavanagh DJ, Bower GH. Mood and self-efficacy: Impact of joy and sadness on perceived capacities. Cognit Ther Res. 1985;9: 507–25.

61. Noddings N. The challenge to care in schools: an alternative approach to education. New York: Teacher College, Columbia University; 2005.

62. Pressman SD, Cohen S, Miller GE, Barkin A, Rabin BS, Treanor JJ. Loneliness, social network size, and immune response to influenza vaccination in college freshmen. Health Psychol. 2005;24: 297–306. doi: 10.1037/0278-6133.24.3.297 15898866

63. Rosenkranz MA, Jackson DC, Dalton KM, Dolski I, Ryff CD, Singer BH, et al. Affective style and in vivo immune response: neurobehavioral mechanisms. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2003;100: 11148–52. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1534743100 12960387

64. Slavish DC, Graham-Engeland JE. Rumination mediates the relationships between depressed mood and both sleep quality and self-reported health in young adults. J Behav Med. 2015;38: 204–13. doi: 10.1007/s10865-014-9595-0 25195078

65. Steptoe A, Wardle J, Marmot M, McEwen BS. Positive affect and health-related neuroendocrine, cardiovascular, and inflammatory processes. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2005;102: 6508–12. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0409174102 15840727

66. Malti T, Gummerum M, Keller M, Buchmann M. Childrens moral motivation, sympathy, and prosocial behavior. Child Dev. 2009;80: 442–60. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8624.2009.01271.x 19467003

67. Blair C, McKinnon RD, & Daneri MP. Effect of the Tools of the Mind kindergarten program on children’s social and emotional development. Early Child Res Q. 2018;43: 52–61.

68. Blair C, Raver C. Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: Results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten. PLoS One. 2014;9: e112393. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0112393 25389751

69. Diamond A, Barnett WS, Thomas J, Munro S. Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science. 2007;318: 1387–8. doi: 10.1126/science.1151148 18048670

70. Clements CH, Sarama J. Experimental evaluation of the effects of a research-based preschool mathematics. Am Educ Res J. 2008;45: 443–94.

71. Morris P, Mattera SK, Castells N, Bangser M, Bierman K, Raver C. Impact findings from the head start cares demonstration: national evaluation of three approaches to improving preschoolers’ social and emotional competence. Washington, DC: OPRE, ACF, US Department of Health and Human Services; 2014.

72. Solomon TLS, Plamondon A, O’Hara A, Finch H, Goco G, Chaban P, et al. A cluster randomized-controlled trial of the impact of the Tools of the Mind curriculum on self-regulation in Canadian preschoolers. Front Psychol. 2017;8: 18.

73. Chapman M, Balabanov R, Bischoff C, Dean H, Denyer D, Jesten B, et al. Primary Program: A Framework for Teaching. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Education; 2000.

74. Committee for Children. Second Step: A violence prevention curriculum. Preschool/ kindergarten teacher’s guide (3rd ed.). Committee for Children Publishers; 2002.

75. Maloney JE, Lawlor MS, Schonert-Reichl KA, Whitehead J. A mindfulness-based social and emotional learning curriculum for school-aged children: the MindUP program. In: Schonert-Reichl KA, Roeser RW, editors. Mindfulness in Education: Integrating theory and research into practice. New York, NY: Springer Press Editors; 2016.

76. Bodrova E, Leong DJ. Tools of the Mind: the Vygotskian approach to early childhood education (2nd ed.). NY: Merrill/Prentice Hall; 2007.

77. Vygotsky LS. Play and its role in the mental development of the child. Soviet Psychology. 1967;7: 6–18.

78. Vygotsky LS. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press; 1978.

79. Berk LE. Children’s private speech: an overview of theory and status of research. In: Diaz RM, Berk LE, editors. Private speech: from social interaction to self-regulation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum; 1992. p. 17–53.

80. Fernyhough C, Fradley E. Private speech on an executive task: relations with task difficulty and task performance. Cogn Dev. 2005;20: 103–20.

81. Freeman S, Eddy SL, McDonough M, Smith MK, Okoroafor N, Jordt H, et al. Active learning increases student performance in science, engineering, and mathematics. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 2014;111: 8410–5. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1319030111 24821756

82. Karpicke JD. Retrieval-based learning: active retrieval promotes meaningful learning. Curr Dir Psychol Sci. 2012;21(3): 157–63.

83. Government of British Columbia. Teaching and assessment tools. Retrieved Feb 25, 2019 from https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/education-training/early-learning/teach/teaching-and-assessment-tools.

84. Beaver J. DRA2: Developmental Reading Assessment. Parsippany, N.J: Celebration Press, 2006.

85. Brouwers A, Tomic W. A longitudinal study of teacher burnout and perceived self-efficacy in classroom management. Teach Teach Educ. 2000;16: 239–53.

86. Duncan GJ, Dowsett CJ, Claessens A, Magnuson K, Huston AC, Klebanov P, et al. School readiness and later achievement. Dev Psychol. 2007; 43: 1428–46. doi: 10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428 18020822

87. Merrell C, Tymms PB. Inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsiveness: their impact on academic achievement and progress. Br J Educ Psychol. 2001;71: 43–56. 11307708

88. Ryan RM, Deci EL. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. Am Psychol. 2000;55(1): 68–78. 11392867

89. Lonigan C. Presentation in Session on “Enhancing Executive Function and Achievement in Prekindergarten Classrooms: The Effectiveness of Tools of the Mind” at Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness (SREE) Conference on Understanding Variations in Treatment Effects. Washington, DC, March 8, 2012.

90. Wilson SJ, Farran D. Presentation in Session on “Enhancing Executive Function and Achievement in Prekindergarten Classrooms: The Effectiveness of Tools of the Mind” at Society for Research on Educational Effectiveness (SREE) Conference on Understanding Variations in Treatment Effects. Washington, DC, March 8, 2012.

91. Holmes J, Gathercole SE, Dunning DL. Adaptive training leads to sustained enhancement of poor working memory in children. Dev Sci. 2009;12: F9–F15. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00848.x 19635074

92. Marcon RA. Moving up the grades: Relationship between preschool model and later school success. Early Childhood Research & Practice. 2002;4(1).

93. Lillard A, Heise M, Richey E, Tong X, Hart A, Bray P. Montessori preschool elevates and equalizes child outcomes: A longitudinal study. Frontiers in Psychology. 2017;8: 1–19.

94. Holochwost SJ, Propper CB, Wolf DP, Willoughby MT, Fisher KR, Kolacz J, et al. Music education, academic achievement, and executive functions. Psychology of Aesthetics, Creativity, and the Arts. 2017;11: 147–66.

95. Sy A, Glanz K. Factors influencing teachers’ implementation of an innovative tobacco prevention curriculum for multiethnic youth: Project SPLASH. J Sch Health. 2008;78: 264–73. doi: 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2008.00299.x 18387026

96. Witt JC. Teachers’ resistance to the use of school-based interventions. J Sch Health Psychol. 1986;24: 37–44.

97. Witt JC, Martens BK. Assessing the acceptability of behavioral interventions used in classrooms. Psychol Sch. 1983;20: 510–17.

98. Bassok D, Latham S, Rorem A. Is kindergarten the new first grade? AERA Open. 2016;1(4): 1–31.

99. Miller E, Almon J. Crisis in the kindergarten: why children need to play in school. College Park, MD: Alliance for Childhood. 2009.

100. Lillard AS. Montessori: the science behind the genius. NYC: Oxford University Press. 2005.

101. Arnsten AFT, Raskind MA, Taylor FB, Connor DF. The effects of stress exposure on prefrontal cortex: translating basic research into successful treatments for post-traumatic stress disorder. Neurobiol Stress. 2015: 1: 89–99. doi: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2014.10.002 25436222

102. Maier SU, Makwana AB, Hare TA. Acute stress impairs self-control in goal-directed choice by altering multiple functional connections within the brain’s decision circuits. Neuron. 2015;87: 621–31. doi: 10.1016/j.neuron.2015.07.005 26247866

103. Olver JS, Pinney M, Maruff P, Norman TR. Impairments of spatial working memory and attention following acute psychosocial stress. Stress Health. 2015;31: 115–23. doi: 10.1002/smi.2533 24395182

104. Ryan SV, von der Embse NP, Pendergast LL, Saeki E, Segool N, Schwing S. Leaving the teaching profession: the role of teacher stress and educational accountability policies on turnover intent. Teach Teach Educ. 2017;66: 1–11.

105. Mahler D, Großschedl J, Harms U. Does motivation matter?–The relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy and enthusiasm and students’ performance. PLoS One. 2018;13: e0207252. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207252 30462713

106. Maslach C, Leiter MP. Understanding the burnout experience: recent research and its implications for psychiatry. World Psychiatry. 2016;15: 103–11. doi: 10.1002/wps.20311 27265691

107. Ahola K, Hakanen J. Burnout and health. In Leiter MP, Bakker AB, Maslach C, editors. Burnout at work: a psychological perspective. London: Psychology Press. 2014: 10–31.


Článok vyšiel v časopise

PLOS One


2019 Číslo 9
Najčítanejšie tento týždeň
Najčítanejšie v tomto čísle
Kurzy

Zvýšte si kvalifikáciu online z pohodlia domova

Získaná hemofilie - Povědomí o nemoci a její diagnostika
nový kurz

Eozinofilní granulomatóza s polyangiitidou
Autori: doc. MUDr. Martina Doubková, Ph.D.

Všetky kurzy
Prihlásenie
Zabudnuté heslo

Zadajte e-mailovú adresu, s ktorou ste vytvárali účet. Budú Vám na ňu zasielané informácie k nastaveniu nového hesla.

Prihlásenie

Nemáte účet?  Registrujte sa

#ADS_BOTTOM_SCRIPTS#